Prostate cancer is caused by malignant cells developing in prostate tissue. Common warning signs of prostate cancer include problems with urination (sudden urges, pain, blood in urine, difficulty urinating), experiencing pain in the back and pelvis, and feeling tired/dizzy. There are different tests utilized to diagnose prostate cancer including PSA screening, TRUS, DRE, and biopsy.
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Breast cancer is caused by malignant cells developing in breast tissue. It is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in women, but advancements in treatment options have seen the death rate decline since the 1990s. Common warning signs of breast cancer include lumps, changes in breast size or shape, discoloration, dimpling of the skin, new concentrated pain in the breast, and rash on the nipple. Yearly mammograms and self-exams are an important part of early detection of breast cancer.
The CXCR7 (C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7) proinflammatory protein is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family. It is a transmembrane protein first identified as the EBV-induced gene-1, and while it was originally classified as an orphan receptor, it is now known to be a novel and alternate receptor for the chemokines CXCL11 and CXCL12. While the actual function of the CXCR7 protein is not entirely understood, it appears to be elevated in human cancers and important for tumor proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. In particular, the CXCR7 ligands have abundant expression in human astrocytoma and glioblastomal neural tissues. Singh’s oncology group used a CXCR7 antibody in their immunoprecipitations to identify a novel pathway of ligand-independent signaling in prostate cancer that involves paired regulation with IL-81....
After working on several thousand experiments to test products, rigorously quality testing data, and validating products in the lab at Novus Biologicals, we have developed a list of things that only scientists will understand from spending time in a lab. Happy April Fools' Day and enjoy our top 10 list!
By: Amelia Zommer, Sam Garcia, Andrew Cosgrove and Lisa Ikariyama
Beta-actin belongs to a large family of highly conserved structural cell proteins that regulate cell motility, structure, and integrity. Beta-actin is expressed in all eukaryotic cells making it the ideal internal quantitative control for protein comparative assays. This feature has made it uniquely a historical and heavily-utilized standard, as the public record of scientific publication literature can attest to. Ex vivo familial genome-wide genetics studies trying to identify chemotherapy cytotoxicitygenomic hotspots used the beta actin antibody in genome-wide linkage analyses1. Dietz’s group employed the beta actin antibody to monitor effects of long-term administration of the DNA synthesis inhibitor imatinib meslyate on downstream events such as proliferation and delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) in both human primary T-cells and murine in vivo models2.
...RNA polymerase II is a large 12-subunit complex that synthesizes all mRNAs and several non-coding RNAs in eukaryotic cells. It is a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzyme that catalyzes transcription of DNA into RNA based on the four ribonucleoside triphosphate building blocks. RNA polymerase II is regulated through DNA-binding transcriptional regulators in both gene and cell type-specific manners. General transcription factors act as RNA polymerase II accessory proteins for transcription of most class II genes, while co-activators and co-repressors bridge between DNA-bound factors and the transcription machinery. The largest subunit B1 is also the catalytic component that forms the active center along with the second largest subunit. The complex is composed of mobile elements surrounding a large central cleft that open and closes due to a flexible clamp. RNAPII antibody was used in a yeast reconstituted system to demonstrate...
Cells undergo apoptotic programmed cell death in response to various stimuli. The process is required for morphogenesis, tissue homeostasis, and host defense. Certain cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and Fas ligand signal through death domain-containing receptors such as tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and Fas. The death domain-containing receptor TRAIL-R1 is the latest member in the TNF family and is expressed in most human tissues such as spleen, peripheral blood leukocytes, small intestine, and thymus. Like its fellow receptors TNFR1, Fas, and death receptor 3 (DR3), TRAIL-R1 mediates apoptosis and NF-kB activation in a variety of cells and tissues. The TRAIL-R1 antibody was employed to determine the key role of the signal recognition particle (SRP) complex in apoptosis triggered by TRAIL-R1 but not...
Protein arginine methylation is a prevalent posttranslational modification in eukaryotic cells. It regulates RNA processing, trafficking and nascent pre-RNA metabolism, receptor-mediated signal transduction, and transcriptional activation processes. PRMT6 was originally identified through a genome-wide search for human protein arginine N-methyltransferase (PRMT) family members. This particular enzyme has type I PRMT activity and with regards to substrate specificity, is functionally distinct from two other previously characterized type I enzymes - PRMT1 and PRMT4. PRMT6 catalyzes the sequential transfer of a methyl group from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to the side chain nitrogens of arginine residues within proteins to form methylated arginine derivatives and S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine. In addition to methylating target substrates, PRMT6 also displays automethylation activity – this is unusual in that it is the first PRMT to do so. It is localized to the...
The CXCR4 (C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4) protein is one member of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR1) family. As a multipass membrane protein that is found in several tissues, it is the receptor for the C-X-C chemokine CXCL12/SDF-1. The CXCR4 ligand works by modulating intracellular calcium ion levels and activating the MAPK1/MAPK3 signal pathways. CXCR4 is also a receptor for extracellular ubiquitin, which produces enhanced levels of intracellular calcium and reduced levels of cellular cAMP. The CXCR4 protein governs a large variety of cellular processes ranging from hematopoiesis to cardiac ventricular septum formation. It has a key role in the vascularization of the gastrointestinal tract through controlling vascular branching and endothelial cell remodeling processes. Stumm’s group used the CXCR4 antibody in immunohistochemistry (IHC) experiments to profile key factors...
Nur77 is a member of the steroid/thyroid hormone phosphoprotein receptor superfamily. It is heavily post-translationally modified and rapidly induced in response to androgens and growth factors. It governs fundamental processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. For some time, it was classified as an orphan receptor with no identifiable or known ligand, but scientists finally were able to identify a novel class of methylene-substituted diindolylmethanes (C-DIM) as its endogenous ligand. Researchers have used the NUR77 antibody to show that the activation of Nur77 in pancreatic, prostate, and breast cancer cells induces apoptosis1.
...Akt1 is a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase involved in many cellular signaling pathways. The major function of this kinase is to mediate cell survival, but it also plays key roles in various other cellular functions such as glycogen synthesis and cell growth. Akt1 acts as a transducer for growth factor receptors that modulate phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) activity. Akt is believed to be a factor in cancer as the tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) was found to antagonize both PI-3 kinase and Akt kinase activity. Akt’s major phosphorylation sites located at threonine 308 and serine 473 are required for its activation and three mammalian isoforms have been identified. Spanish researchers used the Akt antibody in their characterizations of transgenic mice with membrane-targeted PI3K to monitor morphological changes and tumorigenesis in mammary ducts1...
Livin is a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAP) family that regulates programmed cell death. The Livin protein contains a single baculovirus IAP repeat (BIR) essential for function, along with a COOH-terminal RING-type zinc finger domain. In general, IAP proteins block apoptosis by binding and inhibiting caspases through this BIR domain. Two Livin splicing variants, alpha and beta, have been identified, and each has different anti-apoptotic properties. With Livin expression low in adult tissues, it is somewhat higher in developmental tissues. Many RING finger-containing IAPs possess E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, with Livin utilizing a Smac/DIABLO-mediated pathway. There is a large body of literature that establishes Livin as a player in a wide spectrum of tumor types, thus it holds significant potential as a both a diagnostic and prognostic tumor marker. IAP overexpression and the resulting apoptotic...
TLR1 belongs to the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family, and is a key player in the recognition of pathogens as well as the activation of the innate immunity system. TLRs are highly conserved proteins with a high degree of structural and functional homology from Drosophila to humans. By recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are exhibited across a spectrum of ligands, including infectious agents, TLRs modulate cellular cytokine production needed for efficient innate immunity development. Rat reproductive tract studies in Pallodino’s lab with TLR1 antibody demonstrate that the mRNAs of different TLRs and TLR adapter proteins are expressed in contrasting patterns and locations in different rat male reproductive tissues1. The same research group also used the TLR1 antibody to perform analogous detailed studies in epididymal cells...
Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a normal component of cellular differentiation and the development of multicellular organisms. Receptor activator of NF-kB (RANK) lacks significant homology with the other family members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily. The cytoplasmic domain of RANK interacts with the tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factors, adaptor proteins such as TRAF2, TRAF5 and TRAF6. Overexpression of RANK activates NF-kB and c-Jun-terminal kinase (JNK) pathways. RANK and RANKL signaling is well characterized in the bone remodeling system and both are key players in osteoclast activity and induction. Riegel’s group used the RANK antibody to characterize the expression and localization...
Dicer is an RNaseIII-like enzyme capable of cleaving double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) into smaller 21-23 nt RNA fragments known as short interfering RNA (siRNAs). It targets the selective degradation of complementary RNAs in a posttranscriptional gene silencing (PTGS) manner and is key for cell differentiation and development. Unlike long-dsRNA-dependent PTGS which is limited to certain cell types, siRNA can act in a wide variety of cells. Mutations in Dicer are found in blastoma, breast cancer, adenocarcinoma, and pancreatitis. Dicer also appears to be involved in myelination and nervous system protection, as well as miRNA-induced pathologies found in vision and hearing sensory cells and cardiovascular diseases. The Dicer antibody allowed Doi’s group to determine that Dicer and eIF2 family transcription factors mediate PTGS synergistically...
Cell death via apoptosis is a key cellular function triggered by the cell death receptor family and their ligands which signal through downstream adaptor molecules and the caspase protease family. Among the subclass of initiator caspases that include subtypes -2, -8 and -9, caspase 9 is expressed in a variety of human tissues. It is a key component in cell death in response to a wide range of activators such as TNFalpha, TRAIL, anti-CD95, FADD, TRADD, granzyme B, and CPP32. Activated caspase 9 primary signaling occurs through caspase 3, which it cleaves and activates. The Caspase 9 antibody was used by Krajewski’s group to characterize...
The protein TLR6 is one member of the large Toll-like receptor (TLR) family, which governs the activation of the innate immunity system and pathogen recognition in cells. The TLR family is highly conserved from Drosophila to humans, and all the family members have a high degree of both functional and structural homology. TLRs modulate cytokine production by cells that is required to effectively establish innate immunity. Interesting mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation studies in van den Berk’s lab with the TLR6 antibody, demonstrated that the expression patterns of TLRs and ligand-induced signaling and outcome vary between MSCs derived from primitive, unrestricted lineage cord blood compared to those from bone marrow1. Harman et al used the TLR6 antibody to perform analogous lineage gene expression profiles in sorted human blood and skin...
Cells undergo apoptotic programmed cell death in response to various stimuli, and this key mechanism is necessary for cellular morphogenesis, tissue homeostasis, and host defense. Particular cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and the Fas ligand signal through their cooperative death domain-containing receptors tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and Fas. Like its cousin TRAIL-R1, TRAIL-R2 is widely expressed in both normal tissues as well as in many types of tumor cells. TRAIL-R2 mediates apoptosis and NF-kB activation in a variety of cells and tissues just the rest of its family receptor proteins TNFR1, Fas, and death receptor 3 (DR3). The TRAIL-R2 antibody was employed by Kim’s group in their characterizations of apoptotic signaling in TRAIL-resistant cancer cell lines – they found that...
Also known as PROM1 and AC133, this gene is located on chromosome 4p15 and encodes CD133, a 120kDa pentaspan transmembrane glycoprotein (5-TM) and presents multiple spliced variants. Prominin-1 (CD133) was the first protein identified as "Prominin"; originated from the Latin word "Prominere" meaning to protrude and was initially detected on CD34 bright hematopoietic stem cells using a monoclonal antibody (mAb) raised against human CD34+cells. This antibody detected the AC133 epitope of CD133 and since the expression of this epitope was restricted to CD34+ progenitors in bone marrow, adult blood and fetal liver cells, CD133 was proposed as the marker for progenitor hematopoietic cells. [1,2] Subsequently Florek et al, demonstrated the expression of CD133 in several adult human tissues, such as kidney proximal tubules and the parietal layer of Bowman's capsule of...
Steroid receptors (SRs) are a superfamily of ligand-dependent nuclear transcription factors that activate responsive genes response to hormone. Androgen receptors (ARs) are found in a wide variety of tissues, including reproductive organs, central nervous system (CNS), and skeletal muscle. AR signaling is fundamental for the development and function of male reproductive organs, but also plays a role in non-reproductive organs such as muscle, hair follicles, and brain. Abnormalities in AR signaling are linked to a number of diseases, including prostate cancer, male infertility, and Kennedy's disease. In immunohistochemical characterization studies on androgen receptor localization by Takeda’s group, the AR antibody was used to comprehensively survey subcellular AR distribution in rat, human, and mouse tissues1.
CD4, also known as Cluster of Differentiation 4, interacts with major histocompatibility complex class II antigens, acts as a receptor for the human immunodeficiency virus and induces the aggregation of lipid rafts. It is expressed in T lymphocytes, B cells, macrophages, granulocytes, dendritic cells and specific regions of the brain. This protein initiates the early phase of T-cell activation and may function as an important mediator of indirect neuronal damage in infectious and immune-mediated diseases of the central nervous system.
CD4 has been associated with CD4 deficiency, penicilliosis, dermatophytosis, anogenital venereal wart, anus cancer and over 100 other diseases and disorders. Among its related super-pathways are T cell receptor signaling pathway...
The CD (Cluster of Differentiation) nomenclature was established in 1982 at the First International Workshop on Human Leukocyte Differentiation Antigens. It was intended for the classification of leukocytes according to the specific epitopes found at the cell surface, and at this inaugural meeting 139 monoclonal antibodies were evaluated. These antibodies had been used by various researchers to perform immunofluorescent cell staining, and were grouped into clusters based on similar reactivity to specific cell types (1). Eleven clusters were designated at this meeting, however to date more than 350 CD molecules are currently known, and this number continues to grow.
Antibodies grouped together at the Third International Workshop on Human Leukocyte Differentiation Antigens included the clones Y2/131, EBM11, Ki-M6 and Ki-M7, all of which were found to immunoprecipitate a protein of 110kDa from tissue sections. Another antibody,...
RANKL is the ligand for the receptor activator of NFkB (RANK) that belongs to the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily. RANK overexpression induces the NFkB and c-Jun-terminal kinase (JNK) downstream pathways. This pathway has been studied in detail in the bone remodeling system with regards to osteoclast activity and induction. The RANK antibody was used to characterize the expression and localization patterns of RANK in polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) upon inflammation (1). Additionally, RANKL antibody was employed in bone remodeling studies on a mouse osteoblast model to investigate the role of osteoclast differentiation factor (ODF) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated bone diseases such as periodontitis (2). Those researchers used RANKL antibody to demonstrate that LPS directly induces ODF mRNA via...
Kif2a belongs to the Kinesin-13 microtubule depolymerase family that includes members Kif2a, Kif2b, and Kif2c. These proteins are capable of depolymerizing microtubules (MTs) at their ends. During mitotic cell division, Kif2a specifically localizes to centrosomes and is essential for chromosome organization at the metaphase plate, spindle dynamics and turnover, and bipolar mitotic spindle formation. From prophase to metaphase, Kif2a is recruited to the spindle microtubule and spindle poles through interactions with the protein PSRC1, and this requires Polo-like kinase (PLK1). Blocking of Kif2a function either through siRNA knockdown in human cancer cells or antibody blocking in Xenopus eggs leads to the...
NFkB-activating kinase (NAK) is serine/threonine protein kinase that is a member of the IkB kinase (IKK) family and plays a key role in cellular inflammatory responses to foreign stimuli and agents. Fitzgerald, et al. used the NAK antibody to characterize the signaling pathways downstream of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and NFkB in viral infection and the innate immune response – NAK and IkappaB kinase epsilon (IKKepsilon) were found to be integral components (1). Further IRF3 studies were done with the NAK antibody to generate expression profiles in cord blood cells treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce interferon downstream...
